The History of Black Videos Aired on MTV

The History of Black Videos Aired on MTV When MTV launched in 1981, viewers struggled to find videos featuring black artists. The network so sparingly showcased African Americans in its early days that Rick James and David Bowie publicly took it to task.  Despite the channels embrace of black musicians such as Beyonce,  Jay-Z  and  Kanye West  today,  theres no denying  MTVs  rocky history with  black music. So, how did MTV shift from shutting African American musicians out in the early 1980s to routinely spotlighting their contributions decades later? A brief history of the channel’s progress regarding race helps to answer that question. Did MTV Exclude Black Videos?   When MTV debuted on Aug. 1, 1981, at least one black face on the network was a mainstay. It belonged to J.J. Jackson, the sole African American on MTVs roster of video jockeys, or VJs as they became known. Despite Jackson’s presence on MTV through 1986, the network faced allegations of racism for giving scant airtime to videos featuring people of color. MTV executives have denied that racism was at the root of the network’s â€Å"blackout,† saying that black artists received little airplay because their music didn’t fit the channel’s rock-based format. â€Å"MTV was originally designed to be a rock music channel,† said Buzz Brindle, MTV’s former director of music programming, to Jet magazine in 2006. â€Å"It was difficult for MTV to find African American artists whose music fit the channel’s format that leaned toward rock at the outset.† With so few black rockers, adding African Americans to MTV’s roster proved difficult, according to the network’s co-founder Les Garland, whom  Jet also interviewed. â€Å"We had nothing to pick from,† Garland explained. â€Å"Fifty percent of my time was spent in the early days of MTV convincing artists to make music videos and convincing record labels to put up money to make those videos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  One artist needed no convincing. He’d even made a video for â€Å"Dont Stop ’Til You Get Enough,† a cut from his 1979 album Off the Wall. But when approached by Michael Jackson’s  record label, would MTV agree to play his  music videos? How the King of Pop Changed MTV It took major prodding to get MTV to play â€Å"Billie Jean,† the second track from Jackson’s 1982 album Thriller. Released Jan. 2, 1983, the single would go on to top the Billboard 100 chart for seven weeks, but Walter Yetnikoff, president of CBS Records Group, reportedly had to threaten to remove all other CBS videos from MTV before the network agreed to air the video for â€Å"Billie Jean.†Ã‚   Garland  denied such a confrontation occurred, telling Jet that the network began playing the video on its own. â€Å"There was never any hesitation. No fret,† he said. Based on his account, MTV aired the video the same day that executives screened it. However â€Å"Billie Jean† ended up on the network, there’s little doubt that it changed the course of MTV. The first video by a black artist to receive heavy rotation on the network, â€Å"Billie Jean† opened up the door for other artists of color to be featured on MTV. â€Å"Billie Jean† also paved the way for Michael Jackson to star in the 14-minute music video â€Å"Thriller,† the most expensive music video ever made at the time. â€Å"Thriller† debuted Dec. 2, 1983. It proved so popular that it was released as a home video that  went on to become a record-breaking bestseller. Rock Music Takes a Backseat Black recording artists such as Michael Jackson, Prince and Whitney Houston dominated the pop and RB charts in the 1980s. During the same period, however, another urban art form was commanding the music industry’s attention- hip-hop. The films Beat Street  and Krush Groove  paid homage to hip-hop in the first half of the decade. By the second half, MTV had taken notice. It debuted its hip-hop-centered program â€Å"Yo! MTV Raps† on Aug. 6, 1988. According to USA Today, the show was the first ever to exclusively focus on hip-hop. (BETs Rap City premiered the following year.) â€Å"Yo! MTV Raps†Ã‚  aired on MTV for seven years. The program opened the door for â€Å"MTV Jams,† a program with an urban music focus that premiered in 1996. Although MTV began with a rock format in mind, the popularity of pop music, hip-hop, and RB among the general public left the network no choice but to diversify its playlists. By the late 1990s, rock music received increasingly less airplay on the channel as boy bands, Disney starlets, and rappers gained ground with audiences, and rock music recovered from the death of grunge. Black VJs MTV may have been criticized for failing to showcase black recording artists from the outset, but it has always included African American VJs among its staff, starting with the late J.J. Jackson. Other notable MTV VJs of color include Downtown Julie Brown, Daisy Fuentes, Idalis, Bill Bellamy, and Ananda Lewis. On shows such as the long-running â€Å"Real World,† MTV makes a point to showcase cast members from diverse backgrounds, albeit often stereotypically. Cartoon Controversy Although MTV has made considerable gains in diversity over the decades, the network has suffered race-related controversies in the 21st century. In 2006, it drew backlash for airing a cartoon that featured black women as canines - tethered, squatting on all fours, and defecating. The networks then-president, Christina Norman, defended the cartoon, calling it a parody of an appearance rapper Snoop Dogg had made with two black women wearing neck collars and chains. Black activists found this response unacceptable. But as they lobbed their accusations of racism and misogyny at the network, they had to take into account one major development at MTV: A  woman of color ran the channel. That’s right; Christina Norman is black. She served as president of MTV from 2005 to 2008. The cartoon controversy reveals that  during Norman’s tenure, MTV still had much-needed lessons to learn about race. But her rise to the top also indicated that the network accused of shutting out black recording artists now welcomed  diversity both on its airwaves and in its boardroom. Programming That Challenges Racial Bias In 2014, through a partnership with David Binder Research, MTV conducted a study of bias among the millennial generation. Soon after, it launched the website Look Different, a resource for young people wishing to fight for greater equality among marginalized peoples.  Ã‚   A year later, MTVs vice president of public affairs, Ronnie Cho, announced that MTV would create and sponsor ongoing programming designed to  change attitudes and behaviors around racial bias.  Included in that programming was MTVs July 22, 2015, premier of the documentary  White People, in which Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Jose Antonio Vargas traveled across the country speaking to white millennials about topics like privilege and race relations.

How Checks and Balances Work in the US Government

How Checks and Balances Work in the US Government SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’ve tuned into the news lately, you’ve seen the checks and balances system of government at work. Whether it’s courts striking down executive orders or governors vetoing legislation, checks and balances are constantly working to keep the United States government functioning. But what are checks and balances, exactly? And how do they help make democracy work? Although it’s important for everyone to understand the checks and balances system, it’s especially critical for you to understand if you’re taking a government course. Additionally, since a system of checks and balances plays an essential role in the U.S. federal government, the concept will also be a heavy contender for an AP exam free response question. That’s a lot to cover, huh? Not to worry, though! By the end of this guide, you’ll have all the information you need to Answer the question, â€Å"What are checks and balances?† Write your own checks and balances definition Identify pros and cons of a checks and balances government Explain various checks and balances examples Analyze real-life examples of checks and balances Let’s get going! What Are Checks and Balances? Definition and History A system of checks and balances places limitations and controls on the power and responsibility of each branch of government. You probably already know that the United States government isn’t the only government in the world that depends on a system of checks and balances to function properly, but for our purposes, we’re going to focus on how the system of checks and balances functions in the United States’ form of government. To really understand why checks and balances are such a big deal in the United States government, we need to start with the following: Where the idea of checks and balances comes from How checks and balances fit into the United States’ form of government Understanding the history and background of our checks and balances government will lay the foundation for a checks and balances definition that you can use on the AP exam. Where the Idea of Checks and Balances Comes From Two key influences shaped the Founders’ decision to build a system of checks and balances into the United States Constitution: The Founders’ experiences with the government of Great Britain The writings of the eighteenth century French political philosopher, Baron de Montesquieu The overbearing behavior of the English monarchy inspired the thirteen colonies to declare independence and influenced the Founders to form a government system that was built on the ideas of liberty and freedom. They wanted to form a government in the United States that guarded against the kind of overreach they’d witnessed in the English government. That’s where the writings of Baron de Montesquieu came in. Montesquieu originated the political doctrine of separation of powers within a government. (Spoiler alert: checks and balances are the result of this idea!) In his The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu argued for a constitutional government comprised of three separate branches. And these separate branches, Montesquieu argued, should have specific abilities to check the powers of the other branches. In other words, Montesquieu imagined a balanced government where no one branch was more powerful than the other. Montesquieu’s philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the U.S. Constitution and the Founders’ establishment of the three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. The Founding Fathers believed that implementing a system like this in the United States would help keep government power in check and allow citizens to have more freedom. A Constitutional Democracy: The Vehicle for a System of Checks and Balances The Founders’ vision for a government that separated powers took the form of a constitutional democracy. A constitutional democracy is a political system in which the federal government gets its authority to govern from the people. (Actually, you can learn tons more about it means to be a democracy in this article!) But in general, constitutional democracies like the United States are designed to do two things. First, their primary job is to protect the fundamental rights of every citizen, regardless of economic status, race, or class. Second, constitutional democracies limit the amount of government power through a series of limits established by the United States Constitution, which are more commonly referred to as â€Å"checks and balances.† These checks and balances include things like: Separation and sharing of powers among the different branches of government Giving adequate power to different branches to check the powers of other branches Protection of individual rights by due process of law. Elections at frequent intervals that enable changes in leadership and transfer of governmental authority. So what’s important for you to remember about this description of a constitutional democracy? The big takeaway is that the system of checks and balances was written into the U.S. Constitution because the Founders knew it would be essential to the proper functioning of the United States’ form of government. But implementing a system of checks and balances doesn’t end with writing it into the Constitutionthat’s just the beginning. The Constitution holds the three branches of the U.S. federal government responsible for adhering to the system of checks and balances. To add to your working checks and balances definition, we’ll explain the three branches of the federal government and how they work within the system of checks and balances next. The 3 Branches of the United States Federal Government Checks and balances can work in many different ways and hold varying levels of importance in a government that employs such a system. In the U.S. Constitution, the three branches of the federal government were designed to operate separately and independently, but to be equal. In other words, no single branch should have more power than either of the others. Here’s how the system of checks and balances works in practice in the United States: one branch is given the power to take a given action, and another branch (or branches) is given the responsibility to confirm the legality and appropriateness of that action. That’s just a fancy way of saying that every time one branch makes a decision, it’s the responsibility of the other branches to evaluate it. The system of checks and balances facilitates a reciprocal relationship between the different branches of the U.S. federal government. The three branches need each other- under the Constitution, the federal government couldn’t fulfill its duties to the people without the proper function of each individual branch. To understand how the three individual branches work independently and together in a system of checks and balances, let’s define and examine each branch next. The U.S. Capitolbuilding The Legislative Branch The legislative branch of the federal government is established by Article One of the Constitution and is known as the United States Congress. Congress is in charge of creating laws and is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The legislative branch is big: there are 100 members of the Senate, called Senators, and 435 members of the House of Representatives, called U.S. Representatives or Congresspersons. As the biggest branch of the federal government, Congress has a lot of responsibilities, which include: Passing bills Broad taxing and spending power Regulating interstate commerce Controlling the federal budget Borrowing money on the credit of the United States Sole power to declare war and to support and regulate the military Overseeing and making rules for the government and its officers to follow Defining the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary by law in cases not specified by the Constitution Ratifying treaties Sole power of impeachment and trial of impeachments You might be gathering from the list of responsibilities above that the legislative branch’s overarching responsibility is creating, providing for, and controlling: they draft laws, pass bills, make rules, declare things, and make sure that the other branches are following the rules. In other words, they legislate. The U.S. White House The Executive Branch, Defined The executive branch of the federal government is established by Article Two of the Constitution and is made up of the president, the vice president, the Cabinet, executive departments, independent agencies, and other boards, commissions, and committees. When we hear the word â€Å"executive,† a powerful individual in a well-tailored suit might pop into our minds. Just because the President of the United States is the head of the executive branch doesn’t mean they’re a lone wolf, though. All of the other members of the executive branch support and advise the president, and actually do a lot of the work in the executive branch. The Cabinet is comprised of the vice president and the heads of the fifteen executive departments. These department heads have titles like â€Å"secretary,† â€Å"director,† or â€Å"administrator,† and they’re in charge of everything from the Department of Homeland Security, to the Department of Transportation, to the Department of Education. For example, the Secretary of State and the Secretary of the Treasury are both heads of their respective departments and members of the president’s Cabinet. The Secretary of State advises the president on foreign affairs, and the Secretary of the Treasury advises the president on economic affairs. The Cabinet may also be asked to advise the president on responsibilities or decisions that pertain to executive checks on the other two branches, or the executive branch’s response to checks initiated by the other two branches on the executive branch. This is one key way that the president receives both support and accountability in carrying out the duties of the executive branch. Now that you know who makes up the executive branch, let’s look at the executive branch’s key responsibilities: The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces Executes the instructions of Congress May veto bills passed by Congress Executes the spending authorized by Congress Declares states of emergency, publishes regulations and executive orders Makes executive agreements and signs treaties Makes appointments to the federal judiciary, federal executive departments, and other posts Can grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. You’re probably gathering from this list that the executive branch’s main role is to implement and enforce federal laws. It’s called the â€Å"executive† branch for a reason, right? The executive branch executes: it makes sure that the right stuff gets done. It puts plans into action and carries out different laws and orders. The U.S. Supreme Court building The Judicial Branch, Defined The judicial branch is established by Article Three of the Constitution, and it’s the judicial branch’s job to evaluate, interpret, and apply laws. The judicial branch is made up of three different courts: the Supreme Court, the Appellate Courts, and the District Courts. Let’s look at what each of the three courts within the judicial branch can do. The Supreme Court The Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the United States and is the head of the judicial branch. It’s made up of one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. Appointments to the Supreme Court are made for life, so when the President nominates justices and the Senate approves them, it’s a really big deal. The Appellate Courts The Appellate Courtsalso called courts of appealsare the intermediate courts of the U.S. federal court system. There are thirteen of them, and they serve as a sort of go-between for the Supreme Court and the more numerous District Courts. The Appellate Courts hear appeals from the District Courts and, when appropriate, appeals court decisions to the Supreme Court. The District Courts The District Courts are the final component of the judicial branch. The District Courts are where federal trials happen, which is a big responsibility, as there are 94 juridical districts in the United States. Their jurisdiction covers both civil and criminal federal cases. The Judicial Branch’s Responsibilities Now that you know about the different courts that make up the judicial branch, here are the primary responsibilities of the judicial branch: Determining which laws Congress intended to apply to any given case Determining how Congress meant the law to apply to disputes Determining how a law acts to determine the disposition of prisoners Determining how a law acts to compel testimony and the production of evidence Determining how laws should be interpreted to assure uniform policies through the appeals process Reviewing the constitutionality of laws through judicial review You can probably tell from the language used in the list of responsibilities above that the Judicial branch’s primary responsibility is dealing with interpretation: the Judicial branch interprets laws, policies, cases, testimony and evidence through the Constitution. The system of checks and balances works like gears in a machine. It takes the work of all three branches of government in unison to keep the country running. How Does the Checks and Balances System Work in the United States? Now you know about the three branches of government: who the key players are, what they do, and why they do it. Examining the checks and balances that are assigned to each individual branch is the next step to getting you better acquainted with how each branch works. When we described the responsibilities of each branch in the previous sections, we were simultaneously describing how they check the other branches of the federal government. But we think it might be easier to envision how those responsibilities function explicitly as checks and balances if we place them side by side in a table. If you’re a visual learner, this is for you! Looking at all of the checks and balances in one place can also help you think critically about the reciprocal relationship between the different branches and the specific ways that they work together on different topics, issues, and areas of the federal government. To give you a better idea of how the branches work together to check each other, we’ve laid out the different checks and balances in a table below. Each row explains how the branches of government check and balance each other around a specific topic. Let’stake a look: Checks and Balances of the 3 Branches of Government Legislative Branch Powers Executive Branch Powers Judicial Branch Powers Creating Laws Writes and enacts laws May override presidential vetoes by a two-thirds majority in each house May veto laws Determines whether a law is unconstitutional Determines how laws should be interpreted to assure uniform policies in a top-down fashion via the appeals process Foreign Treaties Must approve foreign treaties Can make foreign treaties Determines the legal meaning of treaties Implementing and Interpreting Laws Can limit the power to review the constitutionality of laws May propose amendments to overturn judicial decisions Can set the jurisdiction of the judiciary May veto laws Can petition Congress to approve laws Determines whether a law is unconstitutional Determines which laws Congress intended to apply to any given case Determines how a law acts to determine the disposition of prisoners Determines how a law acts to compel testimony and the production of evidence Official Role Appointments Confirms presidential appointments of federal judges, executive department heads, ambassadors, and many other officers Has impeachment powers over federal officers Appoints federal judges, executive department heads, ambassadors, and various other officers Polices its own members Supreme Court justices and federal judges have lifetime appointments War Has sole power to declare war, and makes the rules for the military Wages war at the direction of Congress Appointing Judges and Justices Creates federal courts except for the Supreme Court Sets the number of justices on the Supreme Court Nominates Supreme Court justices Appoints federal justices Creates conduct rules for judges Can remove judges from their positions in rare instances Executive Branch Actions May investigate actions of the executive branch Rules on whether specific actions of the executive branch are legal and/or Constitutional Whew! That’s a lot of checks and balances and political jargon. Let’s make sense of all this info by identifying some pros and cons of how the powers and responsibilities are distributed in the U.S.’s version of the system of checks and balances. 5 Pros and Cons of a Checks and Balances System Now you have a visual for how checks and balances are assigned and distributed among the three different branches of the U.S. federal government. But what does this all mean? First, it’s important to recognize that the different branches of the federal government aren’t in some kind of antagonistic relationship because of the system of checks and balances. They don’t act like rival sports teams (usually)! Instead, the powers and responsibilities assigned to each branch were intricately coordinated by the writers of the Constitution so the government would operate collectively in the best interest of the people. But it’s a fact of political life that no government system is perfect in practice. On the AP exam, you might be asked to explain or analyze an instance in which the system of checks and balances didn’t do its job, or perhaps to analyze a situation when the system of checks and balances worked to the advantage of U.S. citizens. In order to do this, you’ll need to understand some of the pros and cons of the U.S.’s checks and balances system so you can give a stellar checks and balances definition and analyze and explain checks and balances examples on your own. Check out our list of 5 pros and cons of checks and balances below to help grow your understanding of how the system can work in action. Pro: They Keep a Single Group From Grabbing too Much Power We’re bringing this one up again because it’s the main concept behind implementation of a system of checks and balances: checks and balances guard against tyranny and abuse of power by preventing an individual or small group within the government from seizing too much power. We see this exemplified best in the relationship between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches where creating and passing laws is concerned. The legislative branch can propose bills or laws, the executive branch can veto them, the legislative branch can override the executive veto through a two-thirds vote, and the judicial branch can declare laws unconstitutional. In the process of passing legislation, then, no one individual or branch can grab an undue amount of power, and that’s one of the things that the system of checks and balances does best. It distributes power as evenly as it can among the different branches of the government. Pro: They Get the Government to Self-Regulate What’s key in thinking about checks and balances as an important way to prevent tyranny is that they make the government to check itself and limit its own influence. Though it isn’t fun to think about the possibility of our government becoming tyrannical, the system of checks and balances prevents any self-interested minority within the government from grabbing too much power and acting only in the interests of its group. On the flip side, smaller factions or groups in the minority within the government are always going to keep a close eye on the group that’s in the majority. They’ll be eager to make sure the majority group aren’t getting up to any funny business. If there are corrupt practices going on in the majority, the minority groups in the government will certainly call those out. Political parties are a classic example of how self-regulation can occur in the government. For instance, when the Republican party holds the majority in the House or the Senate, the Democrats in the House and the Senate are extra vigilant about keeping the Republican majority in check. Loyalty to political parties presents plenty of challenges to the system of checks and balances, but the inherent competition between the different political parties represented within the legislative branch can often serve to check the power of self-interested groups. Pro: They Provide Constitutional Support for Disagreements Between the Branches Checks and balances enable the three branches of government to disagree. In a system that separates power among different institutions comprised of many different people, multiple minds work to interpret the Constitution. And when multiple minds are doing that interpreting, disagreements about what is and is not constitutional can arise. That might seem antagonistic and counterproductive to getting things done in the government, but the ability for the different branches to disagree is in the interest of the liberty of the people. When the different branches of the government have the opportunity to work through disagreements about various decisions that affect the people, decisions are made more deliberatively. And the government has the power to make huge decisions, so the slower pace of decision-making enabled by the system of checks and balances can help ensure that these decisions are the best ones. Con: They Can Complicate Policymaking The flip side of constitutional support for disagreements among the different branches is that policymaking can be much more time consuming. One branch can propose a law, another can veto it, and another can say that that law violates the Constitution, and so on. Sometimes the three branches won’t agree and a stalemate will ensue . . . meaning no policy changes occur, or they’re put off for a long time. This can be a good thing in some cases, especially when there is a majority in the House and the Senate who only have the interests of one political party or ideology in mind in policymaking. But sometimes the people want change, and the main thing standing in the way of changes occurring is the different branches’ uses of the system of checks and balances. Con: The System Doesn’t Always Work as Originally Intended Interpreting the Constitution has proven tricky as the United States has grown and changed. For example, the writers of the Constitution couldn’t have predicted the United States’ massively expanding population, the technological revolution, or global conflicts like World War I and World War II.. All of these changes affect the way the Constitution is interpretedwhich includes how checks and balances are understood and implemented. This has led to internal conflicts within the three branches of government. There have been points in history where different branches have tried to expand their power beyond what was originally outlined in the Constitution, and sometimes, the branches have succeeded. For example, to defend the U.S. and its economy against fascist foreign powers, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal restructured the federal government and greatly expanded executive powers. So why is this a â€Å"con,† exactly? Remember: the system of checks and balances exists to make sure that no one branch of government is stronger than the other. When one branch tries to expand its power, it runs the risk of throwing the â€Å"balance† part of the â€Å"checks and balances† process out of equilibrium. That opens up a chance for an overreach of power, which can potentially put citizens’ freedoms at risk. Former President Bill Clinton, who was the President of the United States from 1993–2001 What Are Checks and Balances Like in Action? To really hone your understanding of checks and balances, examples are essential! Checks and balances can play out in interesting ways in real-life situations, so we’re going to summarize and break down one example for you to reference here. The example we’re going to look at is the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, which led to a Supreme Court case involving President Bill Clinton in 1998. This example is kind of a doozy- the checks and balances enacted by all three branches in this situation played out over a decade . . . and the Line Item Veto Act still failed to win approval in Congress and become law. Let’s get into the details of the Act and the case and see what it can teach us about checks and balances. The Line Item Veto Act of 1996: Background The Line Item Veto Act of 1996 allowed the president- Bill Clinton, at that time- to veto parts of bills selectively, rather than vetoing bills in their entirety. The main purpose of this Act was to give the president more control over the details of the federal budgeta power that was constitutionally reserved for Congress. Congress successfully passed this legislation in 1996. How did that happen? Well, in the federal midterm elections of 1994, Republicans took over the House and the Senate from Democrats. This was seen as a pretty big upheaval. It’s even been called the â€Å"Republican Revolution!† The Republicans also succeeded in taking the majority in Congress by making a pretty hefty campaign promise to the American people in the form of the â€Å"Contract with America.† The Contract with America was basically a long list of actions the Republican candidates promised to take if they gained control of Congress. The Line Item Veto Act was a key piece of the Contract with America. The American people liked this Act because it promised to ensure congressional fiscal conservatism. In fact, they had that in common with then-President Clinton: the only provision in the Contract with America that he was willing to support was the Line Item Veto Act. Since Republicans controlled Congress, and since the president supported the Line Item Veto Act, it passed both the legislative and executive branches without being vetoed or rejected. And then things started to get a bit ugly. The Judicial Branch Acts In the time that the Line Item Veto Act was law, President Clinton did a lot of line item vetoing. In fact, he applied the line-item veto to the federal budget 82 times. Does that sound like a lot? It did to the people who were affected by the president’s line-item vetoes, and that’s where the checks and balances started coming into play. When the Act was passed in 1996, lots of Democrats broke with President Clinton to oppose it. A congressman even sued to prevent use of the line-item veto. At the time, the Supreme Court held that the congressman’s case lacked standing because he couldn’t give any specific examples of how the Line Item Veto Act was causing harm to people. But when President Clinton began using the line-item veto a little more liberally, more people filed suit. Since Clinton was making ample use of his new power, this time, the plaintiffs had specific examples of how the line-item veto was causing harm. The City of New York itself and several other healthcare organizations alleged fiscal injury from President Clinton’s cancellation of various provisions from Acts that were passed in 1997. The case- Clinton v. City of New York- went before the District Court, and the Court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. This time, the Court held that the Line Item Veto Act was unconstitutional. The District Court then used its power to appeal to the Supreme Court. The case was headed to the highest federal court in the United States. In 1998, the Supreme Court ultimately ruled that the Line Item Veto Act violated the Presentment Clause of the Constitution, which outlines a specific practice for enacting a statute that the Act did not follow. The Supreme Court used their power of interpretation to rule that the Constitution expressly prohibited the actions that the Act enabled the President to take. The majority of the Supreme Court, in other words, believed that the Act violated principles of the separation of powers and threatened individual liberty by giving the President the power to reward or favor certain groups and punish others. Former President George W. Bush, who was President of the United States from 2001–2009 The Legislative Branch Acts In 2006, the Line Item Veto Act came up again. That year, President George W. Bush asked Congress to enact legislation that would return the line item veto power to the executive branch, and announced his intent to make this request in his State of the Union Address. In March 2006, President Bush sent a legislative proposal to Congress and urged its prompt passage. Anticipating dissent from some members of Congress and the Supreme Court, members of President Bush’s Cabinet argued that his version of the Act was different from the Line Item Veto of Act of 1996 because the new proposal would seek congressional approval of all line-item vetoes, instead of giving the executive unilateral authority for such vetoes. Many members of Congress didn’t buy this argument. Some still believed that the legislation would take away parts of Congress’s constitutional power and give it to the executive branch instead. After hearing arguments from constitutional law experts about the constitutionality of the bill, the House Budget Committee approved the proposed Act through a majority vote. The full House of Representatives voted and approved the same bill soon after, but it failed to win approval in the Senate. But because the Act didn’t win full approval by Congress, the Legislative Line Item Veto Act of 2006 didn’t become law. Summary of the 4 Checks and Balances Involved in This Example If you were paying attention, you may have picked out some of the checks and balances that were involved in the whole scenario surrounding the Line Item Veto Act. To help you out, here’s a list of the checks and balances that we found playing a role in this legislation: The legislative branch wrote and enacted a law: the Line-Item Veto Act of 1996. The judicial branch determined whether that law was unconstitutional in 1998. The executive branch influenced the legislative branch with its proposed agenda in the State of the Union address in 2006, when President Bush announced his plan to attempt to pass the Legislative Line Item Veto Act. The legislative branch rejected the Legislative Line Item Veto Act by a vote in 2006. The Line-Item Veto Act of 1996 is a great example of how we can understand the federal government’s powers as being both divided and shared. In some aspects of this case, branches used their powers to work together to keep another branch from doing something that was not constitutional and that potentially threatened the liberty of the people. By checking each other in this case, the different branches also defended their own constitutional powers by preventing the executive branch from claiming powers that the Constitution assigned to the legislative branch. This example shows how real-world cases of checks and balances in action have a lot of layers: there’s a lot to analyze and unpack, and sometimes who’s right and who’s wrong isn’t easily defined. That’s why it’s important to look at both the big picture situation and all of the details, which is key to making sense of checks and balances in action! What's Next? This is just an overview of how checks and balances work within the United States government. (We know...it’s a lot!) There’s a lot more to learn about how each individual branch checks the other. A good place to start is learning more about how the Executive branch checks the Judicial branch. The AP U.S. Government exam is about more than just how the federal government works, though. That’s why we’ve developed the best 5-step guide to help you prepare. Once you’ve worked your way through that, it’s time to drill deeper into the material you need to know to ace the exam. Here’s a list of the best AP U.S. Government notes on the internet, and here’s a step-by-step guide to acing the AP U.S. Government’s FRQs. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Ashley Robinson About the Author Ashley Sufflà © Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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Addictive Behaviours Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Addictive Behaviours - Research Paper Example To better understand what can be done and what the genetic component to addiction means, we first have to analyse the concept of addiction and then examine how the genetic model compares with several other models which explain addictive behaviour as well as the reality that we have in treating and handling addiction as it dealt by with the courts of law and a morally guided culture. The Concept of Addiction As discussed by Peele et. al. (1998) the basic concept of addiction can be understood as the visible, quantifiable, and often pathological activity of an individual that displays its inability to leave a habit which creates a desire for a physical substance or the engaging in a particular act. This concept was further developed by Compton (2001) who adds that the addictive behaviour may be due to a mental or a physical dependence which is based on a person’s habit. This is certainly an improvement over the common understanding of addiction in which a person is said to be addicted if s/he continues to use a substance despite causing harm to his/her person. When a person is at such a state, the addictive behaviour exhibited by the individual can increase with time. This increase can be represented in several ways which include an increase in the amount or the frequency of using the addictive substance or exhibiting the addictive behaviour.

Intrusion Prevention Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intrusion Prevention - Essay Example When the term hacker came into existence and the way media portrayed a hacker’s image, many individuals who thought that the media’s definition of hacking is cool and trendy, started using their abilities in illegal ways. Later on when companies and individual started facing issues caused due to the hackers who were a part of the dark side of hacking, many individuals who were previously involved in illegal and unethical hacking started providing services as ethical hackers. Their task was to identify various security vulnerabilities that could be manipulated by illegal hackers and they even started providing solutions for these security concerns. This method of solving security issues have existed over a very long period of time, this method has ended up being one of the best ways to solve a user’s security issues but on the other hand users are even concerned about the legitimacy of such security providers. Body There are several advantages associated with hiri ng hackers for the protection of user’s system, these hackers might have previously indulged in activities recognized as unethical hacking, but today, they are using their expertise for legitimate purposes. A hacker is beneficial for securing computer systems because they have been a part of the hacking business and thus their expertise of hacking are much more advanced than those who haven’t been a part of the illegal hacking side. Individuals can learn the basic concepts and technicalities of hacking from various resources but they cannot develop their own techniques nor can they have experience of all the techniques available. Only a genuine hacker has these capabilities and he/she uses various techniques together or in isolation for hacking purposes. Hackers who are involved in the legitimate business of providing security through their hacking skills are recognized as White hat hackers; they keep themselves updated with day to day threats and treat this as their f ull time job (Teare, 2006, p.104). Thus they own the appropriate amount of skills, abilities, and knowledge required to conduct legal hacking. Hiring a hacker for security purposes can obviously have various negative consequences. Trust is a major factor that comes into scrutiny when a hacker is hired to secure a premise. This is similar to hiring a convicted burglar for the security of your own home. The most important aspect of any business is the customer and other stakeholders of the business. Attaching a negative element to a business such as hiring a convicted hacker for security purposes may ruin the image of the business and the concerns of the stakeholders are destined to increase. One of the major concerns of hiring a white hat hacker, who previously used to be a black hat hacker, is the issue of privacy of personal information of the customers and the suppliers (Wilhelm, 2010, p.15). If by mistake a company hires a black hat security consul

Autobiography of a Classroom Essay Example for Free

Autobiography of a Classroom Essay I am a very big classroom in a well-known public school. I cater to needs of the kindergarten class of the school, accommodating I think about eighty five children, a big number isn’t it? I understand that I am the best looking room in the school as, the very small children study here. I am very attractively decorated so that the little ones like to come here every day. The room that is me – is decorated with beautiful coloured pictures. The walls are a blend of some colours I do not know the names of. The furniture that is placed in the length and breadth of the room consists of small round tables to seat four children on each table, and the chairs are also tiny. That is not all, all the furniture is a mixture of many colours. When the children come inside the class they almost fight to sit on certain chairs. That makes me understand that they like the colours and fight for their favourite colours to sit on. At the top two ends of the length of the classroom there are two bigger tables and full size chairs for the teachers to sit. Since there are so many children there are two teachers while in other classes there is only one each. I am a treat for everyone to see. My pleasure knows no bounds when everyone who comes inside the class, admires me, appreciates my get up and the colours that don me. I have the twin advantage of being the most beautiful room in the school and also having the cutest of children coming to spend their time with me. Thus, my life is full of beauty, colour, noise and laughter and at times of course also crying and howling of the children. At times some new entrants to the school come to me with their mothers and, cry as if they had come to the slaughter house to be butchered. At such moments even by heart cries for the little ones and I wonder why man makes these little children come to study if they do not want to. I of course do not know how important studies are for human children, I only feel sad seeing the children cry. My life is full of a very busy schedule though very interesting. The routine of my daily life is so busy that, I do not get any relief for quite long hours. In the morning as early as 6 a. m.two sweepers come open the lock of my room or rather me, and off they start working on me. They sweep my floor, squab it, dust each and every piece of the furniture in me. Thus, I get alerted as soon the room is unlocked. It is not even 8 a. m. when the little brats start pouring inside my body’s doors. At times they enter with so much noise that my whole body feels the rattle of it all. Their movements are so loud that now, I cannot even think of any rest. School bags get flung, tiffin boxes are strewn all about, water bottles are kept just anywhere and there is a lot of commotion all over. Soon the maid enters the room and keeps everything in order and my appearance at once improves and I look tidy and well kept. For these small ones the school hours are just three from, 8 a. m. to 11 a. m. These three hours is my duty time, and just is the time when I also get the day’s entertainment. Being a classroom for the Kindergarten children I get a great chance of hearing conversations between the teachers and the parents. Since this is the first time their children have entered school, parents devote a lot of time to talking about the school and its standards. At times I find that some parents are just too critical and, inspite of getting all the best in this school they always seem to be unhappy and dissatisfied with something or the other in the school. Such parents keep lecturing about things missing in the classroom, the school or even in the playground. When I hear such complaints, my heart sinks and I wonder if they will allow or not allow their children to come to me any more,. For such conversations I have understood that, these days parents pamper the children too much, and it seems that they can never yes, never be satisfied. I am quite surprised to see the vast difference in opinions. While on the one hand I, and also many parents think that I am very beautiful, well kept, and decorated, others of the same clan are always complaining of many defects in my appearance. This gives me a feeling of depression and I do wonder if I can do anything in the matter. After some thinking bouts, I realize that, I can do nothing to satisfy these unhappy parents. I am just here in the hands of the school authorities and stand here as and how they keep me. My working hours are just six, from 6 a. m. when sweepers enter to say 12 noon when I am locked after all children go. After my duty hours I just relax but also feel lonely. No matter what is said about me, I am thoroughly enjoying my life in the cute company of little children. Their company makes me also feel young though now I am quite old. Every summer vacation I am painted afresh, my furniture is painted, and, I am ready to welcome my little friends, new and old with a new look, new enthusiasm and renewed vigour. I pray that my life is forever allowed to remain so interesting and so relaxed. I just love all the children and teachers who come here to me, to work and play in the restricted area within my four walls.

Evolution And Creation :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theory of evolution and creation are the same and different in a lot of ways.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lamarck was the first person to come up with a theory for evolution. There are a lot of different creation stories in the Native American   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theory of evolution means that all plants and animals developed from earlier forms by hereditary communications of slight changes in the production or generations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The word evolution means“The historical development of a biological group (as a race or species) (Webster’s dictionary). The origin of the theory of evolution began with the French naturalist named Lamarck. This happened in around 1809. He said that the more an animal used its body parts the stronger they got. He also said that the less a animal used its body parts the smaller or weaker it became. He thought that these traits became hereditary. Later scientist disproved this theory when more was learned more about genes and how they work.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  50 years later Darwin came up with a theory that most scientist believe it to this day. this is called the theory of evolution. His book was called “The Origin of Specie.'; Alfred R. Wallace, came out with a theory that was almost identical to Darwin’s theory. Darwin’s theory was much more developed and better known. For example Darwin pointed out that farmers would take certain qualities from two different plants and mix them together and it would produce the desired plant. He believed this happened in nature also and he called it “the survival of the fittest'; or “natural selection.';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are a lot of different creation stories and they are the same in that since but they are all different. The creation stories start at the beginning of the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The creation myth I’ve chosen to wright about is based on what native Americans believe. Here is a quote from chief Weneinock of Yakima “God created the Indian country and it was like he spread out a big blanket. He put the Indians on it . . . and that was the time the river started to run. Then god created fish in the river and put deer in the mountains . . . then the creator gave us Indian life; we walked and as soon as we saw the game and the fish we knew they were made for us. We grew and multiplied as a people.'; (Taylor Ph.D.)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another creation story is from the Iroquoian mythology. They thought sky women gave birth to twins. Their names were Iouskeha and Tawiscaron. Iouskeha was the good- minded twin, he was born normal and he made plants, animals, birds and mankind.

Exploring the Scope of a Course in Human Resource Management

Am a graduate in commerce from Pun university, after completing my graduation I decided to take up the masters program in Human Resource Management because was interested in the role it plays in achieving organizations goals and key objectives, amongst them being hiring and training the best employees, and dealing with performance issues. Then, I pursued my post graduation in HRS from SCUD which was a distance learning course. It though helped me in understanding the basic concepts of HARM spectrum; I was unable to apply it practically on job.It was only when I darted my career working with a consultancy helped me in understanding the importance of recruitment and selection of employees in an organization. While working with a consultancy, gained experience Of client interaction from start up to COMIC level 5 companies. It helped me to gain in depth understanding of recruitment and now was the time to move on and gain practical experience in other functions of HRS. Switched to anothe r company where performed In-house recruitment, got an exposure of hiring interns from TIT Delhi and TIT Iambi for a Japanese client.My executive role in IT industry is limited to recruitment and training, Performance appraisals, maintaining work atmosphere and managing disputes. Through this program, would like to gain knowledge of various other roles like audit, facilitator, consultancy and service It's through this diverse managerial experience I have acquired both in operating and managing a workforce of so many people that have decided to further my studies and pursue a career that will enable me provide good technical assistance and professional training to different firms ND multinational corporations on how to apply effective managerial principles.My throughout education, experience and knowledge inspires me to further enhance my abilities in HARM, and pursuing a certification degree from MM is a dream, a goal and will be the biggest achievement path of my career. I want to succeed in life and this program will enable me to be a trained professional, help me to understand in depth concepts of HARM My career goal is to work in a leading firm that places priority on professionalism ND lead such organization towards attainment of set goals by making use of knowledge as well as experience.I believe a certification in Human Resource Management is all that I need to make this dream come true. I chose the program from MM to enhance and deepen my knowledge and skills of Learning and development. The best part of the program is to learn, upgrade and grow, apply the learning while working.

Trench warfare

World War I occurred in the years 1914-1918. The following countries were involved in Trench Warfare; Britain, France, and Germany. Trench warfare was a common form of battle on the Western Front during World War 1. Trench warfare is a military operation in which the soldiers fight from protected ditches. At the beginning of August 1 914, soldiers had a positive attitude going off to war. They thought they were going to have a fun adventure. However, everything did not go as they planned.There were many casualties as well as deaths. Shell shock was a common condition that caused trauma on these soldiers. Their hands shock and their eyes twitched. Some could not even hear or speak. Some screamed and shivered violently when guns were fired. If guilty Of cowardice, they were shot by a firing squad. Soldiers used gas attacks and machine guns as well as artillery. The machine guns fired 8 bullets a second. They even made up a theory behind charging towards enemy trenches and machine guns. The theory was that if enough soldiers charged, then no matter how many were killed or wounded on the way, there loud be still be enough men alive to capture the machine guns in the enemy trenches. Daily life was monotonous and often very dull. It involved the cleaning and inspection of weapons; the removal of dead and wounded from trenches and no man's land; the transfer of supplies, food rations and new equipment; observing enemy activity and movement; repairing barbed wire defenses; delousing of uniforms. Infantry soldiers spent much of their time digging new trenches or repairing old ones.They carted supplies and equipment up and own communication trenches. They spent long hours on sentry duty or in secret listening posts near the enemy trenches. Sappers also helped dug tunnels below enemy trenches and placed huge mines there. Trench positions became formidable fortresses with barbed wire belts, tens of yards deep in front of them with concrete shelters and emplacements often be low ground level. They generally formed zigzag patterns to help protect the trench against enemy attack. Fire steps and scaling ladders enabled troops to go over the top.Other than all of this, it was muddy and had a bad stench of dead bodies. The trenches were a place full of disease, a part played largely by the rats. Rats in their millions infested trenches. There were two main types, the brown and the black rat. Both were despised but the brown rat was especially feared. This rat could grow up to the size of a cat. Lice caused Trench Fever, a particularly painful disease that began suddenly with severe pain followed by high fever. Recovery, away from the trenches, took up to ;level weeks.Also, Ross by the score were found in shell holes covered in water. Trench Foot was an infection in the foot. Due to muddy conditions, the soldiers always got this. It was caused by exposure to damp conditions for more than half day. Men were expected to keep their feet warm and dry. Soldiers we re paired and responsible for the feet of the other. 3 pairs of socks were given to change regularly. In conclusion, trench warfare had a big impact on our heroes today. With all the conditions, they were still able to defend for our country.

Gender and Theology Essays

Gender and Theology Essays Gender and Theology Essay Gender and Theology Essay Gender Theology Name: Institution: Gender Theology : 1. Traditional complimentarian views on marriage are biblical. Such roles gain emphasis with respect to the roles designated to both men and women especially in the Creation Account. The Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood points out that the establishment of Adam’s headship gained verification even before the Fall (van Leeuwen, 2013). Such views also receive depiction in the roles that women played without mention including Sarah, Rebekkah and Hagar who demonstrated the submissive responsibilities of women in the Bible. 2. To an extent, traditional Christian perspectives on marital roles are indeed problematic. The contention arises from the roles assigned to both man and woman in the Creation Account as well as Jesus and Paul’s directives within the New Testament (Sparks, 2012). Traditionalists see the husband as the head and the wife as being submissive, while egalitarians argue that the Creation Account does not define the role of the woman as a submissive role but rather grants equal partnership (George, 2009). 3. Abandoning conventional marital roles diminishes the unity embodied when both man and woman unite to become one. As directed by Jesus, even though the husband embodies male headship, he is to love his wife as Christ loves the church. When the roles are overturned, the consequences arising affect the social and marital lives of the partners and society as a whole. Straying from such norms only leads to an abandonment of the practices common to marriage and various social problems especially divorce, rebellion and neglect of the family. 4. Rubio is neither egalitarian nor complimentarian, as she underlines the problems of marriage from both perspectives. Rubio focuses on the observance of the conventional marital views, and the advocates for equality in marriage in order to facilitate discipleship among families in and out of the church (Rubio, 2003). On a personal assessment, Rubio only focuses on the development of the family irrespective of complimentarian and egalitarian views. 5. Rubio’s emphasis on children and parenting focuses mainly on the family. According to Rubio, conventional views on marriage suppress the working woman’s role in the family as a mother since such views sustain hierarchy in marriage (Rubio, 2003; Spencer, 2009). In summary of the contention surrounding complimentarism and egalitarianism, it is truly evident to ask this; is it necessary to inculcate feminist and patriarchal debates even within the Bible? References George, Janet. Still side by side: A concise explanation of Biblical equality. Minneapolis: Christians for Biblical Equality, 2009. Print. Rubio, Julie H. A Christian theology of marriage and family. New York: Paulist Press, 2003. Print. Sparks, K. L. Sacred word, broken word. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013. Print. Spencer, Ai?da B. Marriage at the crossroads: Couples in conversation about discipleship, gender roles, decision-making, and intimacy. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2009. Print. van Leeuwen, M. S. (2004). Is equal regard in the Bible? In D. Blankenhorn, D.S. Browning M. S. van Leeuwen (Eds.), Does Christianity teach male headship? The equal-regard marriage and its critics (pp.13-22). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Free sample - Nazi Holocaust Stages. translation missing

Nazi Holocaust Stages. Nazi Holocaust StagesThe Nazi Holocaust was the genocide of about six million Jews during the period of World War II. The central principle of Nazi ideology was represented by the prosecution of the Jews and Antisemitism. The members of the Nazi party openly declared their intent to segregate Jews off the â€Å"Aryan† society and do away Jews’ civil, legal, political rights, as published within their 25-point party program in 1920 (Spiegelman, Maus I, 20). This paper presents the stages of the Nazi Holocaust illustrated by various examples. Nazi leaders started fulfilling their pledge of prosecuting German Jews immediately after they assumed power. During the initial six years under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, from 1933 up until the war broke in 1939, Jews felt experienced very difficult times with over 400 orders marred restrictions and regulations in all aspects of their private and public lives. Most of the laws were national, initiated by the German administration and had an effect on all Jews (Spiegelman, Maus II, 40). Furthermore, municipal, regional and state officials also propagated a storm of exclusionary orders within their own communities on their own. Consequently, many individuals in all ranks within the government participated in the Jews’ prosecution through regarding, discussing, planning, adopting, imposing, and promoting anti-Jewish legislation. The first stage was definition that involved Jews being forced to put on the Star of David. They were seen as an international threat and also impure. As a result, Hitler had no reason of incorporating them in his plan of the pure and perfect â€Å"master plan.† According to Spiegelman (Maus II, 90), Stripping of rights was the second stage of. The year 1938 saw Jews being evicted from economic life of Germany. The Jews were denied the right to own property, they were denied German citizenship, and they were forced to carry identification papers. Other rights that were stripped of the Jews include; their lawyers being deprived of the right to practice law, denied voting rights, their businessmen had to be registered. Jewish doctors were also not to be found treating Aryan patients. Many laws aimed at separating Jews from German by limiting them their involvement in public life. The initial main law to infringe the rights of Jews was the â€Å"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service† enacted on 7th April, 1933 which allowed for exclusion of Jews and â€Å"politically unreliable† employees and civil servants from state service (Spiegelman, Maus II, 89). The third stage was segregation and here rural Jews forced to occupy ghettos within large cities. His intention to put them into ghettos was deadly, confining them as they awaited extermination. Most notable among all these ghettos were those in Lodz, Poland which by the end of 1941 accommodated a total of 200, 000 Jews together with 5000 Gypsies (Spiegelman, Maus I, 48). Here individuals frequently died of starvation and diseases. On average, there were 15.1 persons in every apartment and 6-7 persons in every room. Concentration camps constituted another stage of the Nazi holocaust.   The first concentration camp was instituted in 1933 at Dachau to accommodate Nazi regime’s opponent. The figure of Jewish prisoners remarkably augmented after the broken glass’s night. Individuals were forced to there to provide free slave labour. The next stage was Extermination camps.   In this camps gas chambers were cloaked as showers and by 1945, a total of six million were already dead through such means as starvation, mass executions and slave labor within concentration camps. Extermination regions were isolated to prevent civilian population from unnecessarily witnessing the scene. Approximately 2 million Jews were killed through being gassed between 1942 and 1944, November (Spiegelman, Maus II, 78). Lastly it was the aftermath where camps were set free event though the dying, the weak and the sick were left there. A total of 250, 000 Jews were freed from the camps. They were however homeless, poor and left with nothing.   Spiegelman, Art. Maus I: A Survivor's Tale: My Father Bleeds History. Rome: Pantheon 1986. Pp 1-160 Spiegelman, Art.   Maus II: A Survivor's Tale: And Here My Troubles Began. Rome: Pantheon. 1992. Pp 1-144

People's History of Southeast Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

People's History of Southeast Asia - Essay Example Every generation transmitted its stock of values, skills methods, and traditions from one generation to another since the beginning of human existence. The systematic provision of learning began to develop approximately two hundred years ago. The growth of schools for children increased over time due to initiatives of the priests, bureaucrats and specialists. The religious leaders headed schools and were responsible for moral and intellectual growth of children. The early history of Southeast Asia picked up as an aspect of seminal writings that occurred at religious centres. The eagerness of the rulers and elites to absorb influences and ideas from the international arena accelerated the quest for education in the region. The earliest traces of teaching and learning in Southeast Asia are found in Hindu and Buddhist instruction manuals, development of Monastic cultures across Asia and trails that   were left by circulation of scholars.   These indicators are believed to have contr ibuted to the lodgment of successive world religions and their traditions of high learning in the region’s cosmologies. Transnational networks and interactions led to the emergence of educational entrepreneurs. The role of educational entrepreneurs was to draw on financial resources and international networks to put up reformist schools of Islam and printing presses.   Prior to 1920s, the accumulated wealth of Southeast Asia countries was used to erect educational projects such as schools and printing presses.... se indicators are believed to have contributed to the lodgment of successive world religions and their traditions of high learning in the region’s cosmologies. Transnational networks and interactions led to the emergence of educational entrepreneurs. The role of educational entrepreneurs was to draw on financial resources and international networks to put up reformist schools of Islam and printing presses. Prior to 1920s, the accumulated wealth of Southeast Asia countries was used to erect educational projects such as schools and printing presses with an objective enhancing educational development. The South Indian Muslims, Tamil Social Reformers and jobbing Theosophists recognized scientific development as a critical force behind societal development.4 The countries devised patterns of regional migration with the hope that these individuals will return home equipped with new wealth of knowledge and skills. An example of this group was the Minangkabau of West Sumatra who mainl y believed in matrilineal traditions. People were considered to belong to the same decent groups as their mothers. The educated people chose to be teachers, whether in colonial schools, Jawi while others volunteered to work as teachers in Mecca and Medina. The region was largely characterized by an educational cosmopolitan, which lay at the heart of its later educational experiences. The systems of learning in Southeast Asia permeated down to local levels. The communists exploited the village-level Confucian scholar during the mid-20th century revolution. Jean deLanessan, the French traveler, wrote in the year 1895 that even the peasants could read and write. This writing was one of the elements of Orientalist romanticism in action. Jean deLanessan studied the overt behavior of the region during